# KEHOME/knowledge/theory/Sowa/kr.html # Jan/28/2003 #===========================================================# # book hierarchy # # John F. Sowa, "Knowledge Representation: # # Logical, Philosophical, and Computational Foundations", # # Brooks/Cole, 2000. # #===========================================================# kr is Knowledge Representation; kr isu book; kr has author = John F. Sowa, publisher = Brooks/Cole, date = 2000; krhi is begin hierarchy; Knowledge Representation / Preface # Chapter / 1. Logic / 2. Ontology / 3. Knowledge Representations / 4. Processes / 5. Purposes, Contexts, and Agents / 6. Knowledge Soup / 7. Knowledge Acquisition and Sharing # Appendix / A. Summary of Notations / B. Sample Ontology / C. Extended Example / Answers to Selected Exercises / Bibliography / Name Index / Subject Index / Special Symbols #================================================# Preface / logic, ontology, and computation / exercises / organization / cast of characters 1. Logic / 1.1. Historical Background / 1.2. Representing Knowledge in Logic / 1.3. Varieties of Logic / 1.4. Names, Types, and Measures / 1.5. Unity Amidst Diversity 2. Ontology / 2.1. Ontological Categories / 2.2. Philosophical Background / 2.3. Top-Level Categories / 2.4. Describing Physical Entities / 2.5. Defining Abstractions / 2.6. Sets, Collections, Types, and Categories / 2.7. Space and Time 3. Knowledge Representations / 3.1. Knowledge Engineering / 3.2. Representing Structure in Frames / 3.3. Rules and Data / 3.4. Object-Oriented Systems / 3.5. Natural Language Semantics / 3.6. Levels of Representation 4. Processes / 4.1. Times, Events, and Situations / 4.2. Classification of Processes / 4.3. Procedures, Processes, and Histories / 4.4. Concurrent Processes / 4.5. Computation / 4.6. Constraint Satisfaction / 4.7. Change 5. Purposes, Contexts, and Agents / 5.1. Purpose / 5.2. Syntax of Contexts / 5.3. Semantics of Contexts / 5.4. First-Order Reasoning in Contexts / 5.5. Modal Reasoning in Contexts / 5.6. Encapsulating Objects in Contexts / 5.7. Agents 6. Knowledge Soup / 6.1. Vagueness, Uncertainty, Randomness, and Ignorance / 6.2. Limitations of Logic / 6.3. Fuzzy Logic / 6.4. Nonmonotonic Logic / 6.5. Theories, Models, and the World / 6.6. Semiotics 7. Knowledge Acquisition and Sharing / 7.1. Sharing Ontologies / 7.2. Conceptual Schema / 7.3. Accommodating Multiple Paradigms / 7.4. Relating Different Knowledge Representations / 7.5. Language Patterns / 7.6. Tools for Knowledge Acquisition A. Summary of Notations / A.1. Predicate Calculus / A.2. Conceptual Graphs / A.3. Knowledge Interchange Format B. Sample Ontology / B.1. Principles of Ontology / B.2. Top-Level Categories / B.3. Role and Relation Types / B.4. Thematic Roles / B.6. Placement of the Thematic Roles C. Extended Example / C.1. Hotel Reservation System / C.2. Library Database / C.3. ACE Vocabulary / C.4. Translating ACE to Logic #================================================# 1. Logic / 1.1. Historical Background // terminology // syllogisms // Scholastic logic // semantic networks // automated reasoning // mathematical logic // T-box and A-box // Boolean algebra // truth tables // Frege's Begriffsscrrift // algebraic notation / 1.2. Representing Knowledge in Logic // propositional logic // subject and predicate // choice of predicates // logic and ontology // representing music // existential-conjunctive logic // definitions # of music predicates (methods) / 1.3. Varieties of Logic /// syntax /// subsets /// proof theory /// model theory /// ontology /// metalanguage // typed logic // lambda calculus // conceptual graphs # ANSI standard // KIF # ANSI standard /// forall /// exists // modal logic // higher-order logic // metalanguage / 1.4. Names, Types, and Measures // names and types // higher-order types // surrogates // unique naming convention // representing measures // representing musical entities / 1.5. Unity Amidst Diversity /// vocabulary /// syntax /// semantics /// rules of inference // semantics of propositional logic // status of FOL // relating various logics /// fewer axioms /// more natural translations /// more efficient computation / Exercises 2. Ontology / 2.1. Ontological Categories // Quine's criterion // microworlds // Cyc categories / 2.2. Philosophical Background // Aristotle's categories // Kant's categories // triads // Peirce's categories // Husserl's categories // Whitehead's categories // Heidegger's categories // categories of emotions / 2.3. Top-Level Categories // synthesis // contrasts, distinctions, and categories // continuants and occurrents /// continuant: enduring object with stable characteristics /// occurrent: process or event with unstable characteristics, only identified by space-time location // viewpoint // lattice of categories # with examples /// Object (IPC) isa actuality (IP) considered as continuant (C) /// Process (IPO) isa actuality (IP) considered as occurrent (O) /// Schema (IAC) isa form (IA) with structure of continuant (C) /// Script (IAO) isa form (IA) with structure of occurrent (O) /// Juncture (RPC) isa prehension (RP) considered as continuant (C) /// Participation (RPO) isa prehension (RP) considered as occurrent (O) /// Description (RAC) isa proposition (RA) about continuant (C) relating schema (IAC) /// History (RAO) isa proposition (RA) about occurrent (O) relating script (IAO) /// Structure (MPC) isa nexus (MP) considered as continuant (C) for reason (MAC) /// Situation (MPO) isa nexus (MP) considered as occurrent (O) for purpose (MAO) /// Reason (MAC) isa intention (MA) of agent concerning continuant (C) /// Purpose (MAO) isa intention (MA) of agent determining interaction in situation (MPO) // axioms and inferences /// location # space-time /// mass and energy /// representation # encoding /// causality /// independent # 1 entity /// relative # 2 entities /// mediating # 3 or more entities /// continuant # time-independent predicate /// occurrent # time-dependent predicate / 2.4. Describing Physical Entities // possible confusions // intentionality // phenomenon, role, and sign // adjectives modifying nouns // has test // representational primitives /// coreference /// prehension /// containment // classifying roles // independence / 2.5. Defining Abstractions // categories of forms // monads // spatial forms // methods of definition // hierarchies of theories /// transitivity /// reflexivity /// symmetry /// antisymmetry // lattice operations / 2.6. Sets, Collections, Types, and Categories // sets and types // set theory // criticisms of set theory /// ontological extravagance /// discrete elements /// paradoxes /// grotesque contortions /// nonconstructive definitions // mereology /// simpler ontology /// continuity /// no paradoxes /// more natural definitions /// constructive definitions // axioms for mereology /// sets /// aggregates /// proper part /// overlap /// supplement /// extensionality /// disjoint /// generalized union /// union /// intersection /// discrete /// continuous /// lumpy // collective nouns / 2.7. Space and Time // space without points // sets at the metalevel // time without instants // Zeno's paradox // time's arrow // continuants and occurents // identity conditions // granularity // search for primitives / Exercises 3. Knowledge Representations / 3.1. Knowledge Engineering // informal specifications // formalization // principles of knowledge representation // surrogate // ontological commitments // medium for efficient computation // fragmentary theory of reasoning // medium for human expression // simulation and theorem proving // persistance / 3.2. Representing Structure in Frames // schemata // frames // mapping frames to logic // frames and syllogisms // multiple inheritance // KL-ONE // classification // reasoning in frame systems // definitional logics /// LOOM / 3.3. Rules and Data // Microplanner, Prolog, and SQL // plurals and sets // rules and views // logical foundations // forward chaining // SQL triggers // implementing logic in practical systems / 3.4. Object-Oriented Systems // O-O declarations // mapping frames and rules to objects // encapsulation // logic-based O-O systems // zooming in and zooming out // translations to natural language // objects and theories / 3.5. Natural Language Semantics // background knowledge // language analysis // concepts and relations // resolving ambiguities // question answering // inference / 3.6. Levels of Representation // knowledge levels // competence levels // design levels // meaning triangle // metalevels // mental processes / Exercises 4. Processes / 4.1. Times, Events, and Situations // situations and events // multiple occurrences // adverbial modifiers // actions as roles / 4.2. Classification of Processes /// continuous /// discrete /// figure 4.3. Types of Processes // fluents // basic distinction # Erik Sandewall /// discrete or continuous /// linear or branching /// independent or ramified /// immediate or delayed /// sequential or concurrent /// predictable or surprising /// normal or equinormal /// flat or hierarchical /// timeless or time-bounded /// forgetful or memory-bound / 4.3. Procedures, Processes, and Histories /// flow chart /// finite-state machine /// Petri net // mapping to logic // branches and loops // procedural or declarative / 4.4. Concurrent Processes // flow of tokens // timing diagram // measuring time // synchronizing processes // theorems about Petri nets / 4.5. Computation // dataflow diagrams // computing with Petri nets // message passing // Linda / 4.6. Constraint Satisfaction // generate and test // cryptarithmetic problem // optimization // observations on the method // metalevel heuristics / 4.7. Change // situation calculus # McCarthy /// cause(proposition)(situation) // solving the frame problem // Yale shooting problem // distributed situations // causal networks / Exercises 5. Purposes, Contexts, and Agents / 5.1. Purpose // final causes // complementarity // contexts // identity // verbs as nexus // defining verb senses / 5.2. Syntax of Contexts // Peirce's contexts // discourse representation theory // resolving indexicals // tranformation rules // conversational implicatures / 5.3. Semantics of Contexts // situations and propositions /// situation |= proposition // McCarthy's contexts /// ist(context,proposition) // meaningful situations // meaning-preserving translations // examples of meaning-preserving translations // meaning in natural languages // tinctured existential graphs // classifying contexts / 5.4. First-Order Reasoning in Contexts // soundness and completeness // import-export rules // Peirce's rules of inference // proof in existential graphs // proof in algebraic notation // cut-and-paste theorem // generalized modus ponens // exporting information from a context / 5.5. Modal Reasoning in Contexts // Kripke's worlds // criticism of possible worlds // Hintikka's model sets // Dunn's laws and Facts // completing the pushout // situations as pullbacks // legislating modalities // exporting modal information // stratified metalevels // example // model theory in contexts / 5.6. Encapsulating Objects in Contexts // object instance // object methods // passing messages // executing a procedure // resulting state // using multiple notations / 5.7. Agents // psychology of agents // artificial psyches // consciousness // reactive agents // beliefs, desires, and intentions // combining rational and reactive techniques / Exercises 6. Knowledge Soup / 6.1. Vagueness, Uncertainty, Randomness, and Ignorance // multiple uses of the same words // vagueness in scientific language // paradox of the heap // liquids // multiple perspectives // intentional granularity / 6.2. Limitations of Logic // case-based reasoning // exceptions // prototypes and definitions // propositions and continuous models / 6.3. Fuzzy Logic // fuzzy predicates and operators // computing certainty factors // context dependence // fuzzy control systems // analog control systems // criticism of fuzzy logic /// incomplete generalizations /// abnormal conditions /// incomplete definitions /// conflicting defaults /// unanticipated applications // quantifying continuity and vagueness / 6.4. Nonmonotonic Logic // variation by discrete steps // defaults in frames // default logic // abnormality // open and closed worlds // knowledge and belief // conflicting defaults // prioritized defaults // computational complexity / 6.5. Theories, Models, and the World // facts, fictions, and hypotheses // finding the best theory // navigating the lattice of theories /// contraction /// expansion /// analogy // theory revision // theories as explanations // abduction // combining knowledge sources / 6.6. Semiotics // arbitrary nature of symbols // classes of signs /// material trichotomy: qualisign, sinsign, legisign /// relational trichotomy: icon, index, symbol /// formal trichotomy: rheme, dicent sign, argument // semiotic analysis // applications of semiotics /// Chinese room /// symbolic and imagelike reasoning /// subsymbolic processes /// phenomenology / Exercises 7. Knowledge Acquisition and Sharing / 7.1. Sharing Ontologies // problems of aligning ontologies // ontologies and axioms // natural language and problem solving // representations for problem solving // elaboration tolerance / 7.2. Conceptual Schema // integrated systems // universal languages /// natural languages /// logic // need for logic // entity-relationship diagrams // conceptual graphs and KIF // quantifiers // query graphs / 7.3. Accommodating Multiple Paradigms // trees // parse tree // models and metamodels // unified modeling language / 7.4. Relating Different Knowledge Representations // reorganizing a database // answering queries // mapping to natural language / 7.5. Language Patterns // co-occurrence patterns // verb patterns // subject patterns // object patterns // but test // business rules and types / 7.6. Tools for Knowledge Acquisition // conceptual schema modeling facilities // varieties of domain knowledge // mapping specifications to logic // controlled natural language /// COBOL /// ACE //// the,a,an //// every,some //// and,or,not,if,then //// is,has //// of,to,from,for,in //// that,which,who //// there //// she /// CycL // developing CSMF and MDM / Exercises A. Summary of Notations / A.1. Predicate Calculus // predicates // predicate logic // formation rules // rules of inference // rules for quantifiers // typed predicate logic // extended quantifiers / A.2. Conceptual Graphs // definition A.2.1: conceptual graph // definition A.2.2: concept // definition A.2.3: conceptual relation // definition A.2.4: lambda expression // definition A.2.5: concept type // definition A.2.6: relation type // definition A.2.7: referent // definition A.2.8: context // definition A.2.9: coreference set // definition A.2.10: knowledge base /// type hierarchy /// relation hierarchy /// catalog of individuals /// outermost context // transformation rules / A.3. Knowledge Interchange Format // conceptual graphs: designed for direct mapping to/from natural language // KIF: designed for direct mapping to/from computer systems B. Sample Ontology / B.1. Principles of Ontology // glossary / B.2. Top-Level Categories / B.3. Role and Relation Types / B.4. Thematic Roles / B.6. Placement of the Thematic Roles C. Extended Example / C.1. Hotel Reservation System / C.2. Library Database / C.3. ACE Vocabulary / C.4. Translating ACE to Logic end hierarchy krhi;