# KEHOME/knowledge/theory/Sowa/kr.html
# Jan/28/2003
#===========================================================#
# book hierarchy #
# John F. Sowa, "Knowledge Representation: #
# Logical, Philosophical, and Computational Foundations", #
# Brooks/Cole, 2000. #
#===========================================================#
kr is Knowledge Representation;
kr isu book;
kr has
author = John F. Sowa,
publisher = Brooks/Cole,
date = 2000;
krhi is begin hierarchy;
Knowledge Representation
/ Preface
# Chapter
/ 1. Logic
/ 2. Ontology
/ 3. Knowledge Representations
/ 4. Processes
/ 5. Purposes, Contexts, and Agents
/ 6. Knowledge Soup
/ 7. Knowledge Acquisition and Sharing
# Appendix
/ A. Summary of Notations
/ B. Sample Ontology
/ C. Extended Example
/ Answers to Selected Exercises
/ Bibliography
/ Name Index
/ Subject Index
/ Special Symbols
#================================================#
Preface
/ logic, ontology, and computation
/ exercises
/ organization
/ cast of characters
1. Logic
/ 1.1. Historical Background
/ 1.2. Representing Knowledge in Logic
/ 1.3. Varieties of Logic
/ 1.4. Names, Types, and Measures
/ 1.5. Unity Amidst Diversity
2. Ontology
/ 2.1. Ontological Categories
/ 2.2. Philosophical Background
/ 2.3. Top-Level Categories
/ 2.4. Describing Physical Entities
/ 2.5. Defining Abstractions
/ 2.6. Sets, Collections, Types, and Categories
/ 2.7. Space and Time
3. Knowledge Representations
/ 3.1. Knowledge Engineering
/ 3.2. Representing Structure in Frames
/ 3.3. Rules and Data
/ 3.4. Object-Oriented Systems
/ 3.5. Natural Language Semantics
/ 3.6. Levels of Representation
4. Processes
/ 4.1. Times, Events, and Situations
/ 4.2. Classification of Processes
/ 4.3. Procedures, Processes, and Histories
/ 4.4. Concurrent Processes
/ 4.5. Computation
/ 4.6. Constraint Satisfaction
/ 4.7. Change
5. Purposes, Contexts, and Agents
/ 5.1. Purpose
/ 5.2. Syntax of Contexts
/ 5.3. Semantics of Contexts
/ 5.4. First-Order Reasoning in Contexts
/ 5.5. Modal Reasoning in Contexts
/ 5.6. Encapsulating Objects in Contexts
/ 5.7. Agents
6. Knowledge Soup
/ 6.1. Vagueness, Uncertainty, Randomness, and Ignorance
/ 6.2. Limitations of Logic
/ 6.3. Fuzzy Logic
/ 6.4. Nonmonotonic Logic
/ 6.5. Theories, Models, and the World
/ 6.6. Semiotics
7. Knowledge Acquisition and Sharing
/ 7.1. Sharing Ontologies
/ 7.2. Conceptual Schema
/ 7.3. Accommodating Multiple Paradigms
/ 7.4. Relating Different Knowledge Representations
/ 7.5. Language Patterns
/ 7.6. Tools for Knowledge Acquisition
A. Summary of Notations
/ A.1. Predicate Calculus
/ A.2. Conceptual Graphs
/ A.3. Knowledge Interchange Format
B. Sample Ontology
/ B.1. Principles of Ontology
/ B.2. Top-Level Categories
/ B.3. Role and Relation Types
/ B.4. Thematic Roles
/ B.6. Placement of the Thematic Roles
C. Extended Example
/ C.1. Hotel Reservation System
/ C.2. Library Database
/ C.3. ACE Vocabulary
/ C.4. Translating ACE to Logic
#================================================#
1. Logic
/ 1.1. Historical Background
// terminology
// syllogisms
// Scholastic logic
// semantic networks
// automated reasoning
// mathematical logic
// T-box and A-box
// Boolean algebra
// truth tables
// Frege's Begriffsscrrift
// algebraic notation
/ 1.2. Representing Knowledge in Logic
// propositional logic
// subject and predicate
// choice of predicates
// logic and ontology
// representing music
// existential-conjunctive logic
// definitions # of music predicates (methods)
/ 1.3. Varieties of Logic
/// syntax
/// subsets
/// proof theory
/// model theory
/// ontology
/// metalanguage
// typed logic
// lambda calculus
// conceptual graphs # ANSI standard
// KIF # ANSI standard
/// forall
/// exists
// modal logic
// higher-order logic
// metalanguage
/ 1.4. Names, Types, and Measures
// names and types
// higher-order types
// surrogates
// unique naming convention
// representing measures
// representing musical entities
/ 1.5. Unity Amidst Diversity
/// vocabulary
/// syntax
/// semantics
/// rules of inference
// semantics of propositional logic
// status of FOL
// relating various logics
/// fewer axioms
/// more natural translations
/// more efficient computation
/ Exercises
2. Ontology
/ 2.1. Ontological Categories
// Quine's criterion
// microworlds
// Cyc categories
/ 2.2. Philosophical Background
// Aristotle's categories
// Kant's categories
// triads
// Peirce's categories
// Husserl's categories
// Whitehead's categories
// Heidegger's categories
// categories of emotions
/ 2.3. Top-Level Categories
// synthesis
// contrasts, distinctions, and categories
// continuants and occurrents
/// continuant: enduring object with stable characteristics
/// occurrent: process or event with unstable characteristics, only identified by space-time location
// viewpoint
// lattice of categories # with examples
/// Object (IPC) isa actuality (IP) considered as continuant (C)
/// Process (IPO) isa actuality (IP) considered as occurrent (O)
/// Schema (IAC) isa form (IA) with structure of continuant (C)
/// Script (IAO) isa form (IA) with structure of occurrent (O)
/// Juncture (RPC) isa prehension (RP) considered as continuant (C)
/// Participation (RPO) isa prehension (RP) considered as occurrent (O)
/// Description (RAC) isa proposition (RA) about continuant (C) relating schema (IAC)
/// History (RAO) isa proposition (RA) about occurrent (O) relating script (IAO)
/// Structure (MPC) isa nexus (MP) considered as continuant (C) for reason (MAC)
/// Situation (MPO) isa nexus (MP) considered as occurrent (O) for purpose (MAO)
/// Reason (MAC) isa intention (MA) of agent concerning continuant (C)
/// Purpose (MAO) isa intention (MA) of agent determining interaction in situation (MPO)
// axioms and inferences
/// location # space-time
/// mass and energy
/// representation # encoding
/// causality
/// independent # 1 entity
/// relative # 2 entities
/// mediating # 3 or more entities
/// continuant # time-independent predicate
/// occurrent # time-dependent predicate
/ 2.4. Describing Physical Entities
// possible confusions
// intentionality
// phenomenon, role, and sign
// adjectives modifying nouns
// has test
// representational primitives
/// coreference
/// prehension
/// containment
// classifying roles
// independence
/ 2.5. Defining Abstractions
// categories of forms
// monads
// spatial forms
// methods of definition
// hierarchies of theories
/// transitivity
/// reflexivity
/// symmetry
/// antisymmetry
// lattice operations
/ 2.6. Sets, Collections, Types, and Categories
// sets and types
// set theory
// criticisms of set theory
/// ontological extravagance
/// discrete elements
/// paradoxes
/// grotesque contortions
/// nonconstructive definitions
// mereology
/// simpler ontology
/// continuity
/// no paradoxes
/// more natural definitions
/// constructive definitions
// axioms for mereology
/// sets
/// aggregates
/// proper part
/// overlap
/// supplement
/// extensionality
/// disjoint
/// generalized union
/// union
/// intersection
/// discrete
/// continuous
/// lumpy
// collective nouns
/ 2.7. Space and Time
// space without points
// sets at the metalevel
// time without instants
// Zeno's paradox
// time's arrow
// continuants and occurents
// identity conditions
// granularity
// search for primitives
/ Exercises
3. Knowledge Representations
/ 3.1. Knowledge Engineering
// informal specifications
// formalization
// principles of knowledge representation
// surrogate
// ontological commitments
// medium for efficient computation
// fragmentary theory of reasoning
// medium for human expression
// simulation and theorem proving
// persistance
/ 3.2. Representing Structure in Frames
// schemata
// frames
// mapping frames to logic
// frames and syllogisms
// multiple inheritance
// KL-ONE
// classification
// reasoning in frame systems
// definitional logics
/// LOOM
/ 3.3. Rules and Data
// Microplanner, Prolog, and SQL
// plurals and sets
// rules and views
// logical foundations
// forward chaining
// SQL triggers
// implementing logic in practical systems
/ 3.4. Object-Oriented Systems
// O-O declarations
// mapping frames and rules to objects
// encapsulation
// logic-based O-O systems
// zooming in and zooming out
// translations to natural language
// objects and theories
/ 3.5. Natural Language Semantics
// background knowledge
// language analysis
// concepts and relations
// resolving ambiguities
// question answering
// inference
/ 3.6. Levels of Representation
// knowledge levels
// competence levels
// design levels
// meaning triangle
// metalevels
// mental processes
/ Exercises
4. Processes
/ 4.1. Times, Events, and Situations
// situations and events
// multiple occurrences
// adverbial modifiers
// actions as roles
/ 4.2. Classification of Processes
/// continuous
/// discrete
/// figure 4.3. Types of Processes
// fluents
// basic distinction # Erik Sandewall
/// discrete or continuous
/// linear or branching
/// independent or ramified
/// immediate or delayed
/// sequential or concurrent
/// predictable or surprising
/// normal or equinormal
/// flat or hierarchical
/// timeless or time-bounded
/// forgetful or memory-bound
/ 4.3. Procedures, Processes, and Histories
/// flow chart
/// finite-state machine
/// Petri net
// mapping to logic
// branches and loops
// procedural or declarative
/ 4.4. Concurrent Processes
// flow of tokens
// timing diagram
// measuring time
// synchronizing processes
// theorems about Petri nets
/ 4.5. Computation
// dataflow diagrams
// computing with Petri nets
// message passing
// Linda
/ 4.6. Constraint Satisfaction
// generate and test
// cryptarithmetic problem
// optimization
// observations on the method
// metalevel heuristics
/ 4.7. Change
// situation calculus # McCarthy
/// cause(proposition)(situation)
// solving the frame problem
// Yale shooting problem
// distributed situations
// causal networks
/ Exercises
5. Purposes, Contexts, and Agents
/ 5.1. Purpose
// final causes
// complementarity
// contexts
// identity
// verbs as nexus
// defining verb senses
/ 5.2. Syntax of Contexts
// Peirce's contexts
// discourse representation theory
// resolving indexicals
// tranformation rules
// conversational implicatures
/ 5.3. Semantics of Contexts
// situations and propositions
/// situation |= proposition
// McCarthy's contexts
/// ist(context,proposition)
// meaningful situations
// meaning-preserving translations
// examples of meaning-preserving translations
// meaning in natural languages
// tinctured existential graphs
// classifying contexts
/ 5.4. First-Order Reasoning in Contexts
// soundness and completeness
// import-export rules
// Peirce's rules of inference
// proof in existential graphs
// proof in algebraic notation
// cut-and-paste theorem
// generalized modus ponens
// exporting information from a context
/ 5.5. Modal Reasoning in Contexts
// Kripke's worlds
// criticism of possible worlds
// Hintikka's model sets
// Dunn's laws and Facts
// completing the pushout
// situations as pullbacks
// legislating modalities
// exporting modal information
// stratified metalevels
// example
// model theory in contexts
/ 5.6. Encapsulating Objects in Contexts
// object instance
// object methods
// passing messages
// executing a procedure
// resulting state
// using multiple notations
/ 5.7. Agents
// psychology of agents
// artificial psyches
// consciousness
// reactive agents
// beliefs, desires, and intentions
// combining rational and reactive techniques
/ Exercises
6. Knowledge Soup
/ 6.1. Vagueness, Uncertainty, Randomness, and Ignorance
// multiple uses of the same words
// vagueness in scientific language
// paradox of the heap
// liquids
// multiple perspectives
// intentional granularity
/ 6.2. Limitations of Logic
// case-based reasoning
// exceptions
// prototypes and definitions
// propositions and continuous models
/ 6.3. Fuzzy Logic
// fuzzy predicates and operators
// computing certainty factors
// context dependence
// fuzzy control systems
// analog control systems
// criticism of fuzzy logic
/// incomplete generalizations
/// abnormal conditions
/// incomplete definitions
/// conflicting defaults
/// unanticipated applications
// quantifying continuity and vagueness
/ 6.4. Nonmonotonic Logic
// variation by discrete steps
// defaults in frames
// default logic
// abnormality
// open and closed worlds
// knowledge and belief
// conflicting defaults
// prioritized defaults
// computational complexity
/ 6.5. Theories, Models, and the World
// facts, fictions, and hypotheses
// finding the best theory
// navigating the lattice of theories
/// contraction
/// expansion
/// analogy
// theory revision
// theories as explanations
// abduction
// combining knowledge sources
/ 6.6. Semiotics
// arbitrary nature of symbols
// classes of signs
/// material trichotomy: qualisign, sinsign, legisign
/// relational trichotomy: icon, index, symbol
/// formal trichotomy: rheme, dicent sign, argument
// semiotic analysis
// applications of semiotics
/// Chinese room
/// symbolic and imagelike reasoning
/// subsymbolic processes
/// phenomenology
/ Exercises
7. Knowledge Acquisition and Sharing
/ 7.1. Sharing Ontologies
// problems of aligning ontologies
// ontologies and axioms
// natural language and problem solving
// representations for problem solving
// elaboration tolerance
/ 7.2. Conceptual Schema
// integrated systems
// universal languages
/// natural languages
/// logic
// need for logic
// entity-relationship diagrams
// conceptual graphs and KIF
// quantifiers
// query graphs
/ 7.3. Accommodating Multiple Paradigms
// trees
// parse tree
// models and metamodels
// unified modeling language
/ 7.4. Relating Different Knowledge Representations
// reorganizing a database
// answering queries
// mapping to natural language
/ 7.5. Language Patterns
// co-occurrence patterns
// verb patterns
// subject patterns
// object patterns
// but test
// business rules and types
/ 7.6. Tools for Knowledge Acquisition
// conceptual schema modeling facilities
// varieties of domain knowledge
// mapping specifications to logic
// controlled natural language
/// COBOL
/// ACE
//// the,a,an
//// every,some
//// and,or,not,if,then
//// is,has
//// of,to,from,for,in
//// that,which,who
//// there
//// she
/// CycL
// developing CSMF and MDM
/ Exercises
A. Summary of Notations
/ A.1. Predicate Calculus
// predicates
// predicate logic
// formation rules
// rules of inference
// rules for quantifiers
// typed predicate logic
// extended quantifiers
/ A.2. Conceptual Graphs
// definition A.2.1: conceptual graph
// definition A.2.2: concept
// definition A.2.3: conceptual relation
// definition A.2.4: lambda expression
// definition A.2.5: concept type
// definition A.2.6: relation type
// definition A.2.7: referent
// definition A.2.8: context
// definition A.2.9: coreference set
// definition A.2.10: knowledge base
/// type hierarchy
/// relation hierarchy
/// catalog of individuals
/// outermost context
// transformation rules
/ A.3. Knowledge Interchange Format
// conceptual graphs: designed for direct mapping to/from natural language
// KIF: designed for direct mapping to/from computer systems
B. Sample Ontology
/ B.1. Principles of Ontology
// glossary
/ B.2. Top-Level Categories
/ B.3. Role and Relation Types
/ B.4. Thematic Roles
/ B.6. Placement of the Thematic Roles
C. Extended Example
/ C.1. Hotel Reservation System
/ C.2. Library Database
/ C.3. ACE Vocabulary
/ C.4. Translating ACE to Logic
end hierarchy krhi;